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Syria; Culture, History and Civilization
The purpose of this page is to provide historical and cultural background about Syria, and generate interest around this ancient country which out survived a relentless cascade of historical disasters, including natural tragedies and invading armies. This is a secular apolitical and none aligned or affiliated projects to any other group. All contribution, designs and research are done by volunteers, who are either proud of their culture or friends who are part of this human learning experience. Together, we can all celebrate the Syrian history, culture and its contribution to humanity.
Syria
Identification. Syria is the name that was given to the region by the Greeks and Romans and probably derives from the Babylonian suri. Arabs traditionally referred to Syria and a large, vaguely defined surrounding area as Sham, which translates as "the northern region," "the north," "Syria," or "Damascus." .
Location and Geography. Syria borders Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Israel and Jordan to the south, and Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. It is 71,000 square miles (183,900 square kilometers) in area. One-third of the land is arable, and one-third is pasturable. The terrain is mostly desert, and home to drought resistant plants such as myrtle, boxwood, and wild olive. There is little wildlife. Remote areas have wolves, hyenas, and foxes; the desert has lizards, eagles, and buzzards. Most of the population is concentrated in the western region of the country, near the Mediterranean. Damascus, the capital and the largest city, is located at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along the small Barada River. It has a favorable location in a fertile area close to the desert and has historically served as a refueling stop and commercial center for traders making trips through the desert. Inland of this area is a range of limestone mountains, the Jabal al-Nusayriya. The Gharb Depression, a dry but fertile valley, lies between this range and other mountains to the east. The Euphrates River and several of its tributaries pass through Syria, supplying more than 80 percent of the country's water. There are two natural lakes: Arram in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Golan Heights and Daraa along the Jordanian border. There are several artificial lakes created by dams that supply irrigation and electrical power. Most of the country has a desertlike climate, with hot, dry summers and milder winters. What little rain there is falls in the winter, mainly along the coast.
Demography. The population in 2011 was 23 million . The country is 90.3 percent Arab. Kurds are estimated to constitute between 3 and 9 percent of the population. Also represented are Turks; Armenians, most of whom fled Turkey between 1925 and 1945; and small numbers of Circassians, Assyrians, and Jews. The Bedoins are Arabs, but form a distinct group. They were originally nomadic, but many have been forced to settle in towns and villages.
Linguistic Affiliation. Arabic is the official language, and 90 percent of the population speaks it. The Syrian dialect is very similar to Jordanian and Egyptian and varies little from Modern Standard Arabic, the standardized form used in communications throughout the Arab world. Kurdish, Armenian, and Circassian also are spoken. Kurdish is spoken mostly in the northeast, but even there it is rarely heard, as speaking it is viewed as a gesture of dissent. Some ancient languages are still spoken in parts of the country, including Maalua, Aramaic, and Syriac. As a result of colonial influence, French and English (French in particular) are understood and used in interactions with tourists and other foreigners.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of SpaceThe focal point of any Middle Eastern city is the souk, or marketplace, a labyrinthine space of alleys, stalls, and tiny shops that also include ancient mosques and shrines. Traditionally, the residential quarters of a city were divided along ethnic and religious lines. Today, this system has been largely replaced by divisions along class lines, with some wealthier neighborhoods and some poorer ones. Damascus is an ancient city, and along with Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world. The Great Omayyad Mosque, which dates back to the early days of Islam, is one of its oldest and most famous buildings. It formerly served as a Byzantine church honoring Saint John the Baptist and was constructed on the site of an old temple to pre-Islamic gods. The walls are lined with marble and overlaid with golden vines. Six hundred gold lamps hang from the ceiling. The city is home to ruins as well as intact buildings that date back thousands of years. These structures are located in the area called the Old City. Damascus is also a city of cars, highways, and tall modern buildings made of reinforced concrete.
Aleppo, although smaller, is equally ancient. It is geographically protected by its elevation and rocky terrain, and traces its history back to its days as a fort. Today Aleppo is the nation's second largest urban center and most industrialized city. It engages in silk weaving and cotton printing as well as the tanning of animal hides and the processing of produce. Other cities include Latakia, the country's main port, and Homs and Tartus, both of which have oil refineries.
In villages, houses present a closed front to the outside world, symbolizing the self-contained family unit. They are small, usually with one to three rooms, and are built around an enclosed central courtyard. Traditional rural houses in the northwest are mud structures that are shaped like beehives. In the south and east, most houses are made of stone. The nomadic Bedouin, who live mainly in the south and east, sleep in tents that are easily transportable.
In 1960, 30 percent of the population lived in cities; in 1970, that proportion was 46 percent; and by 1988, the number had climbed to half. Most of this growth has been concentrated in Damascus. The rapid spread of that city into nearby farmland has resulted in traffic congestion, overtaxed water supplies, pollution, and housing shortages. Many older buildings have been taken down to make room for roads and newer structures. The outskirts of the city have become overrun with quickly and shoddily constructed homes that sometimes have electricity but rarely have running water or sewage facilities.
Location and Geography. Syria borders Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Israel and Jordan to the south, and Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. It is 71,000 square miles (183,900 square kilometers) in area. One-third of the land is arable, and one-third is pasturable. The terrain is mostly desert, and home to drought resistant plants such as myrtle, boxwood, and wild olive. There is little wildlife. Remote areas have wolves, hyenas, and foxes; the desert has lizards, eagles, and buzzards. Most of the population is concentrated in the western region of the country, near the Mediterranean. Damascus, the capital and the largest city, is located at the foot of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains along the small Barada River. It has a favorable location in a fertile area close to the desert and has historically served as a refueling stop and commercial center for traders making trips through the desert. Inland of this area is a range of limestone mountains, the Jabal al-Nusayriya. The Gharb Depression, a dry but fertile valley, lies between this range and other mountains to the east. The Euphrates River and several of its tributaries pass through Syria, supplying more than 80 percent of the country's water. There are two natural lakes: Arram in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Golan Heights and Daraa along the Jordanian border. There are several artificial lakes created by dams that supply irrigation and electrical power. Most of the country has a desertlike climate, with hot, dry summers and milder winters. What little rain there is falls in the winter, mainly along the coast.
Demography. The population in 2011 was 23 million . The country is 90.3 percent Arab. Kurds are estimated to constitute between 3 and 9 percent of the population. Also represented are Turks; Armenians, most of whom fled Turkey between 1925 and 1945; and small numbers of Circassians, Assyrians, and Jews. The Bedoins are Arabs, but form a distinct group. They were originally nomadic, but many have been forced to settle in towns and villages.
Linguistic Affiliation. Arabic is the official language, and 90 percent of the population speaks it. The Syrian dialect is very similar to Jordanian and Egyptian and varies little from Modern Standard Arabic, the standardized form used in communications throughout the Arab world. Kurdish, Armenian, and Circassian also are spoken. Kurdish is spoken mostly in the northeast, but even there it is rarely heard, as speaking it is viewed as a gesture of dissent. Some ancient languages are still spoken in parts of the country, including Maalua, Aramaic, and Syriac. As a result of colonial influence, French and English (French in particular) are understood and used in interactions with tourists and other foreigners.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of SpaceThe focal point of any Middle Eastern city is the souk, or marketplace, a labyrinthine space of alleys, stalls, and tiny shops that also include ancient mosques and shrines. Traditionally, the residential quarters of a city were divided along ethnic and religious lines. Today, this system has been largely replaced by divisions along class lines, with some wealthier neighborhoods and some poorer ones. Damascus is an ancient city, and along with Aleppo, one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world. The Great Omayyad Mosque, which dates back to the early days of Islam, is one of its oldest and most famous buildings. It formerly served as a Byzantine church honoring Saint John the Baptist and was constructed on the site of an old temple to pre-Islamic gods. The walls are lined with marble and overlaid with golden vines. Six hundred gold lamps hang from the ceiling. The city is home to ruins as well as intact buildings that date back thousands of years. These structures are located in the area called the Old City. Damascus is also a city of cars, highways, and tall modern buildings made of reinforced concrete.
Aleppo, although smaller, is equally ancient. It is geographically protected by its elevation and rocky terrain, and traces its history back to its days as a fort. Today Aleppo is the nation's second largest urban center and most industrialized city. It engages in silk weaving and cotton printing as well as the tanning of animal hides and the processing of produce. Other cities include Latakia, the country's main port, and Homs and Tartus, both of which have oil refineries.
In villages, houses present a closed front to the outside world, symbolizing the self-contained family unit. They are small, usually with one to three rooms, and are built around an enclosed central courtyard. Traditional rural houses in the northwest are mud structures that are shaped like beehives. In the south and east, most houses are made of stone. The nomadic Bedouin, who live mainly in the south and east, sleep in tents that are easily transportable.
In 1960, 30 percent of the population lived in cities; in 1970, that proportion was 46 percent; and by 1988, the number had climbed to half. Most of this growth has been concentrated in Damascus. The rapid spread of that city into nearby farmland has resulted in traffic congestion, overtaxed water supplies, pollution, and housing shortages. Many older buildings have been taken down to make room for roads and newer structures. The outskirts of the city have become overrun with quickly and shoddily constructed homes that sometimes have electricity but rarely have running water or sewage facilities.
Queen Zenobia of Syria
Quote attributed to Zenobia: "I am a queen; and as long as I live I will reign."
Zenobia Facts
Known for: "warrior queen" conquering Egypt and challenging Rome, finally defeated by emperor Aurelian. Also known for her image on a coin.
Dates: 3rd century C.E.; estimated as born about 240; died after 274; ruled from 267 or 268 to 272
Also known as: Septima Zenobia, Septimia Zenobia, Bath-Zabbai, Zainab (Arabic), Julia Aurelia Zenobia Cleopatra
Zenobia Biography:
Zenobia, generally agreed to have been primarily of Semitic (Arab) descent, claimed Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt as an ancestor, though this may be a confusion with Cleopatra Thea (the "other Cleopatra"). Another ancestor was Drusilla of Mauretania, granddaughter of Cleopatra Selene, the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. Drusilla also claimed descent from a sister of Hannibal and from a brother of Queen Dido of Carthage. Drusilla's grandfather was King Juba II of Mauretania. Zenobia's paternal ancestry can be traced six generations, and includes Gaius Julius Bassianus, father of Julia Domna, who married the emperor Septimus Severus.
Zenobia's languages likely included Arabic, Greek, Aramaic and Latin. Zenobia's mother may have been Egyptian; Zenobia was said to be familiar with ancient Egyptian language as well.
Marriage
In 258, Zenobia was noted as being the wife of the king of Palymra, Septimius Odaenathus. Odaenathus had one son from his first wife: Hairan, his presumed heir. Palymra, between Syria and Babylonia, at the edge of the and the Persian empire, was economically dependent upon trade, protecting caravans. Palmyra was known as Tadmore locally.
Zenobia accompanied her husband, riding ahead of the army, as he expanded Palmyra's territory, to help protect Rome's interests and to harry the Persians of the Sassanid empire.
Around 260-266, Zenobia gave birth to Odaenathus' second son, Vaballathus (Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus). About a year later, Odaenathus and Hairan were assassinated, leaving Zenobia as regent for her son.
Zenobia assumed the title of "Augusta" for herself, and "Augustus" for her young son.
War With Rome
In 269-270, Zenobia and her general, Zabdeas, conquered Egypt, ruled by the Romans. Roman forces were away fighting the Goths and other enemies to the north, Claudius II had just died and many of the Roman provinces were weakened by a smallpox plague, so the resistance was not great. When the Roman prefect of Egypt objected to Zenobia's takeover, Zenobia had him beheaded. Zenobia sent a declaration to the citizens of Alexandria, calling it "my ancestral city," emphasizing her Egyptian heritage.
After this success, Zenobia personally led her army as a "warrior queen." She conquered more territory, including Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, creating an empire independent of Rome. This area of Asia Minor represented valuable trade route territory for the Romans, and the Romans seem to have accepted her control over these routes for a few years. As ruler of Palmyra and a large territory, Zenobia had coins issued with her likeness and others with her son's; this may have been taken as a provocation to the Romans though the coins acknowledged Rome's sovereignty. More urgent: Zenobia cut off grain supplies to the empire, which caused a bread shortage in Rome.
The Roman Emperor Aurelian finally turned his attention from Gaul to Zenobia's new-won territory, seeking to solidify the empire. The two armies met near Antioch (Syria), and Aurelian's forces defeated Zenobia's. Zenobia and her son fled to Emesa, for a final fight. Zenobia retreated to Palmyra, and Aurelius took that city. Zenobia escaped on a camel, sought protection of the Persians, but was captured by Aurelius' forces at the Euphrates. Palmyrans who did not surrender to Aurelius were ordered executed.
A letter from Aurelius includes this reference to Zenobia: "Those who speak with contempt of the war I am waging against a woman, are ignorant both of the character and power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations of stones, of arrows, and of every species of missile weapons and military engines."
In Defeat
Zenobia and her son were sent to Rome as hostages. A revolt in Palmyra in 273 led to the sacking of the city by Rome. In 274, Aurelius paraded Zenobia in his triumph parade in Rome, passing out free bread as part of the celebration. Vaballathus may never had made it to Rome, likely dying on the journey, though some stories have him parading with Zenobia in Aurelius' triumph.
What happened to Zenobia after that? Some stories had her committing suicide (perhaps echoing her alleged ancestor, Cleopatra) or dying in a hunger strike; others had her beheaded by the Romans or dying of illness.
Yet another story -- which has some confirmation based on an inscription in Rome -- had Zenobia being married to a Roman senator and living with him in Tibur (Tivoli, Italy). In this version of her life, Zenobia had children by her second marriage. One is named in that Roman inscription, "Lucius Septimia Patavina Babbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaeathiania."
Zenobia was a patron of Paul of Samosata, Metropolitan of Antioch, who was denounced by other church leaders as a heretic.
Saint Zenobius of Florence, a 5th century bishop, may be a descendant of Queen Zenobia.
Queen Zenobia has been remembered in literary and historical works for centuries, including in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and art works.
Quote attributed to Zenobia: "I am a queen; and as long as I live I will reign."
Zenobia Facts
Known for: "warrior queen" conquering Egypt and challenging Rome, finally defeated by emperor Aurelian. Also known for her image on a coin.
Dates: 3rd century C.E.; estimated as born about 240; died after 274; ruled from 267 or 268 to 272
Also known as: Septima Zenobia, Septimia Zenobia, Bath-Zabbai, Zainab (Arabic), Julia Aurelia Zenobia Cleopatra
Zenobia Biography:
Zenobia, generally agreed to have been primarily of Semitic (Arab) descent, claimed Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt as an ancestor, though this may be a confusion with Cleopatra Thea (the "other Cleopatra"). Another ancestor was Drusilla of Mauretania, granddaughter of Cleopatra Selene, the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. Drusilla also claimed descent from a sister of Hannibal and from a brother of Queen Dido of Carthage. Drusilla's grandfather was King Juba II of Mauretania. Zenobia's paternal ancestry can be traced six generations, and includes Gaius Julius Bassianus, father of Julia Domna, who married the emperor Septimus Severus.
Zenobia's languages likely included Arabic, Greek, Aramaic and Latin. Zenobia's mother may have been Egyptian; Zenobia was said to be familiar with ancient Egyptian language as well.
Marriage
In 258, Zenobia was noted as being the wife of the king of Palymra, Septimius Odaenathus. Odaenathus had one son from his first wife: Hairan, his presumed heir. Palymra, between Syria and Babylonia, at the edge of the and the Persian empire, was economically dependent upon trade, protecting caravans. Palmyra was known as Tadmore locally.
Zenobia accompanied her husband, riding ahead of the army, as he expanded Palmyra's territory, to help protect Rome's interests and to harry the Persians of the Sassanid empire.
Around 260-266, Zenobia gave birth to Odaenathus' second son, Vaballathus (Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus). About a year later, Odaenathus and Hairan were assassinated, leaving Zenobia as regent for her son.
Zenobia assumed the title of "Augusta" for herself, and "Augustus" for her young son.
War With Rome
In 269-270, Zenobia and her general, Zabdeas, conquered Egypt, ruled by the Romans. Roman forces were away fighting the Goths and other enemies to the north, Claudius II had just died and many of the Roman provinces were weakened by a smallpox plague, so the resistance was not great. When the Roman prefect of Egypt objected to Zenobia's takeover, Zenobia had him beheaded. Zenobia sent a declaration to the citizens of Alexandria, calling it "my ancestral city," emphasizing her Egyptian heritage.
After this success, Zenobia personally led her army as a "warrior queen." She conquered more territory, including Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, creating an empire independent of Rome. This area of Asia Minor represented valuable trade route territory for the Romans, and the Romans seem to have accepted her control over these routes for a few years. As ruler of Palmyra and a large territory, Zenobia had coins issued with her likeness and others with her son's; this may have been taken as a provocation to the Romans though the coins acknowledged Rome's sovereignty. More urgent: Zenobia cut off grain supplies to the empire, which caused a bread shortage in Rome.
The Roman Emperor Aurelian finally turned his attention from Gaul to Zenobia's new-won territory, seeking to solidify the empire. The two armies met near Antioch (Syria), and Aurelian's forces defeated Zenobia's. Zenobia and her son fled to Emesa, for a final fight. Zenobia retreated to Palmyra, and Aurelius took that city. Zenobia escaped on a camel, sought protection of the Persians, but was captured by Aurelius' forces at the Euphrates. Palmyrans who did not surrender to Aurelius were ordered executed.
A letter from Aurelius includes this reference to Zenobia: "Those who speak with contempt of the war I am waging against a woman, are ignorant both of the character and power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations of stones, of arrows, and of every species of missile weapons and military engines."
In Defeat
Zenobia and her son were sent to Rome as hostages. A revolt in Palmyra in 273 led to the sacking of the city by Rome. In 274, Aurelius paraded Zenobia in his triumph parade in Rome, passing out free bread as part of the celebration. Vaballathus may never had made it to Rome, likely dying on the journey, though some stories have him parading with Zenobia in Aurelius' triumph.
What happened to Zenobia after that? Some stories had her committing suicide (perhaps echoing her alleged ancestor, Cleopatra) or dying in a hunger strike; others had her beheaded by the Romans or dying of illness.
Yet another story -- which has some confirmation based on an inscription in Rome -- had Zenobia being married to a Roman senator and living with him in Tibur (Tivoli, Italy). In this version of her life, Zenobia had children by her second marriage. One is named in that Roman inscription, "Lucius Septimia Patavina Babbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaeathiania."
Zenobia was a patron of Paul of Samosata, Metropolitan of Antioch, who was denounced by other church leaders as a heretic.
Saint Zenobius of Florence, a 5th century bishop, may be a descendant of Queen Zenobia.
Queen Zenobia has been remembered in literary and historical works for centuries, including in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales and art works.